Early Modern Europe History Phd Reading List
History of Early Mod Europe
Introduction
Timeline
| Reformation ca. 1500-1650 | Enlightenment ca. 1650-1800 | |||||
| i | 2 | iii | 4 | |||
| 5 | 6 | |||||
| ane | historic period of growing religious conflict | ca. 1500-1618 |
| 2 | Thirty Years' War | ca. 1618-1648 |
| 3 | Early Enlightenment | ca. 1648-1715 |
| 4 | Belatedly Enlightenment | ca. 1715-1800 |
| 5 | English Revolution | ca. 1640-lx |
| 6 | French Revolution | ca. 1789-99 |
| summary of primary powers | Reformation: Spain, France, Republic of austria Enlightenment: French republic, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Great britain | |
| growing religious disharmonize ca. 1500-1618 | Protestant-Catholic conflict grows, between and within nations | Reformation ca. 1500-1650 |
| 30 Years' State of war ca. 1618-48 | the German language states (aided by France, Kingdom of denmark, and Sweden) successfully battle Republic of austria (aided by Spain) for political/religious autonomy | |
| Early on Enlightenment ca. 1648-1715 | French republic, under Louis Xiv, flourishes equally the mightiest European nation; the Early Enlightenment concludes with the War of the Spanish Succession | Enlightenment ca. 1650-1800 |
| Late Enlightenment ca. 1715-1800 | a 5-way balance of ability prevails in Europe; Britain wins the Seven Years' State of war, thereby becoming the global colonial superpower; the Enlightenment concludes with the French Revolution |
General Features
The Early Mod age witnessed the rise of Western Europe to global political, economic, and technological dominance. This ascent was gradual; only toward the cease of the Early Modern age did Western power clearly surpass that of rival civilizations. Europe'due south chief rivals were found in the Center Eastward (Ottoman Empire), South asia (Mughal Empire), and East asia (Ming/Qing China).
The Early Modernistic age can be divided into two periods: the Reformation (ca. 1500-1650; see Reformation) and the Enlightenment (ca. 1650-1800; encounter Enlightenment). The period tin also be divided into ii narratives: the history of the continent itself (the focus of this commodity), and the history of the overseas empires amassed past European powers (see European Colonialism).
The vast economical and territorial expansion of the Early Modern age was a force for both adept and ill. On the negative side, the scale of war betwixt Western powers (in terms of troops, resources, and geographic extent) grew steadily. On the positive side, the Early Modern age witnessed the rise of a large heart grade (e.1000. merchants, artisans, officials), which profoundly bolstered the spread of literacy and scholarship (given that the middle class possessed the fourth dimension and wealth to get literate and pursue scholarly activities).
Withal these dramatic changes, political power in Early Modernistic Europe remained full-bodied in the hands of the upper class, equanimous primarily of nobility and clergy. A fundamental struggle emerged between the middle and upper grade of each nation, often spurring attempted revolution. The old lodge (nobility and clergy) was finally displaced in the modern historic period (ca. 1800-nowadays), when industrial manufacturing allowed capitalists to go the ascendant economical class (see History of the Western Economy).
Centralization
A country, as nosotros use the term today, is an independent, centrally-governed territory. In Western Europe, countries only began to sally toward the stop of the medieval menses, as monarchs finally managed to reach firm centralized command over large regions. During the Reformation, the power of monarchs continued to grow, while the power of local nobles connected to decline.
In other words, Early on Modern Europe experienced a transition from feudalism to absolutism. Under the feudal system, monarchs ruled their lands indirectly via hierarchies of nobility (see Feudalism and Serfdom), whereas an absolutist monarch directly rules an entire state, relatively free of interference from lesser nobles. The Reformation served as the transitional period between bullwork and authoritarianism, while the Enlightenment featured strongly absolutist monarchs; indeed, the Enlightenment menstruation is also known as the "Age of Absolutism".
Rise of Humanism
Humanism is "an outlook that emphasizes homo capabilities and concerns" (see Humanism). It features two key assertions: that individuals should do critical thought, and that secular matters are important. Humanism forms the very cadre of Western civilization.
Throughout the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church exerted religious potency over the entirety of Western Europe. The Church was as well a major political and economical force, with many clergy holding posts in government and teaching, and enormous wealth existence collected from land holdings and taxation. As the medieval period drew on, however, resistance to Church authority grew, due largely to the rise of the centre class (which possessed the time and literacy to written report and denounce religious oppression). Church building response to criticism varied from genuine reform efforts to horrific violence.
Humanism was nearly extinguished during the medieval menstruum: critical thought was supplanted with bullheaded acceptance of Church doctrine, and secular scholarship was largely abased. Since Church power depended on being perceived as unquestionable, it opposed both science (which could undermine theology) and liberalism (which would give people freedom to denounce the Church). Progress in these areas was frustrated until the overarching authority of the Church was shattered by the Reformation (see Reformation).
The success of the Reformation led to the Enlightenment, during which humanism reached its fully-developed class (see Enlightenment). The full spectrum of secular subjects were eagerly explored, and all fields of cognition were, at final, constantly tested with disquisitional idea. The Enlightenment thus gave rise to the modern Western world, including modern science and liberal commonwealth.
The Habsburgs
One of the key purple houses of Europe was the Habsburg dynasty, which ruled the Austrian Empire for the whole of its existence (ca. 1500-WWI). Upwards until ca. 1800, the Austrian Empire is too known every bit the Holy Roman Empire.
| ca. 950-1300 | Holy Roman Empire | initial flourishing |
| ca. 1300-1500 | decline | |
| ca. 1500-WWI | Austrian Empire | Habsburg rule |
Habsburg power peaked when, via strategic matrimony, a single Habsburg came to be (simultaneously) the Spanish king and Holy Roman emperor. This man is known equally Charles 5 (Holy Roman emperor) or Charles I (rex of Kingdom of spain). Charles' dual reign spanned roughly four decades, near the start of the Reformation menstruum.
After Charles, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire were once once more ruled separately, each past a line of the Habsburg family. The Austrian Habsburgs ruled the Austrian Empire for the remainder of its history (until WWI), while the Castilian Habsburgs ruled Spain until ca. 1700 (when the line went extinct, precipitating the War of the Castilian Succession).
Main Article
Reformation Europe
ca. 1500-1650
| primary powers | Spain, France, Austria | |
| growing religious conflict ca. 1500-1618 | Protestant-Catholic conflict grows, between and within nations | |
| 30 Years' War ca. 1618-48 | the German states (aided by France, Denmark, and Sweden) successfully battle Republic of austria (aided by Spain) for political/religious autonomy |
The Reformation featured abiding faith-based conflict (namely Catholic-Protestant conflict) inside and between the nations of Western Europe. Religious fervour was, of course, frequently entangled with political interests.
The most powerful nations of Reformation Europe were Spain (the mightiest), French republic, and Republic of austria. Alliances of the Reformation generally coincided with faith: Protestant regions on one side (Germany, Netherlands, England, Scandinavia), Catholic regions on the other (Kingdom of spain, Holy Roman Empire). The master exception was French republic, which despite being Catholic was determined to break the power of the Habsburgs.
The Reformation can be divided into two parts: a period of escalating disharmonize betwixt Protestants and Roman Catholics (ca. 1500-1618) and the Xxx Years' War (ca. 1618-48).
The master struggles of the "escalating conflict" period were the Italian Wars and the Dutch Revolt, both of which lasted decades. The Italian Wars, fought between Spain and France over Italian territory, concluded in Spanish victory. In the Dutch Revolt (aka the Fourscore Years' War), kingdom of the netherlands won independence from Castilian rule. (The concluding three decades of the the Dutch Revolt overlap with the Thirty Years' War.)
The region of "the Netherlands" comprises the northern half of the Low Countries. While the Low Countries were largely independent during the Middle Ages, they became a house Habsburg possession ca. 1500. The Netherlands broke gratis during the Reformation, while the southern Low Countries (now Belgium) would not achieve independence until the nineteenth century.
The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), fought mainly in Germany, centred on the struggle of the German states confronting Republic of austria for political and religious autonomy. (While Frg officially belonged to the Holy Roman Empire, the region was actually a patchwork of small, semi-independent states.) Austria was aided past Kingdom of spain, while the German states were supported importantly past Denmark, Sweden, and France. Over seven meg were killed in the 30 Years' War, making it the bloodiest conflict in Europe prior to the Offset World War.K262-263,8
The Thirty Years' War initially erupted in Bohemia (role of Austrian territory), when enraged Protestants (a strong minority group in that region) burst into the male monarch'due south palace and hurled several officials through a window: an event referred to every bit the Defenestration of Prague. War subsequently raged in Bohemia (for the first few years of the state of war), then primarily Germany (for the balance). Austria was ultimately defeated, with the treaty that ended the state of war (the Peace of Westphalia) granting religious and political autonomy to the German states. (In Bohemia, however, the Protestant rebellion was quelled, and Austrian control of the region remained firm.)8,ix
Reformation England
| ca. 1500-1600 | ca. 1600-48 |
| Tudors | James I > Charles I |
Under the Tudor dynasty (ca. 1500-1600), England bloomed into a major power. The conversion of England to Protestantism was initiated by Henry VIII (the second Tudor), who proclaimed himself head of Catholicism in England (instead of the pope) in response to the pope's refusal to grant him a divorce. Over the Tudor period, England came to abandon Catholicism altogether, with Protestantism being permanently established as the state religion of England by Elizabeth I (the last Tudor).67
The Tudors were succeeded by the Stuart dynasty. Its beginning two members were James I and Charles I, both of whom provoked civil unrest via fell anti-Catholicism, heavy taxation, and contempt for Parliament. Under James' reign, this unrest culminated in the Gunpowder Plot, a Cosmic endeavour to accident up Parliament. Under Charles' reign, unrest finally erupted into the English Revolution.68
The period known every bit the English language Revolution (ca. 1640-lx) had ii phases. The first one-half of this menstruum was spanned by the English language Civil War, which ultimately deposed Charles I. The second half was spanned by the Republic (a dictatorship ruled by Oliver Cromwell), during which civil conflict connected. In 1660, the Stuart monarchy was restored.
The English Ceremonious War was fought between the Royalists (supporters of the king, equanimous primarily of high-ranking nobles) and the Parliamentarians (supporters of Parliament, composed primarily of lesser nobles and the eye grade). The war ended in Parliamentarian victory and Charles' execution.70
Parliament was the representative assembly of England. (A representative assembly is a trunk of representatives from across a country, who get together to participate in the governance of that land.) While representative assemblies emerged in various Western European states during the Middle Ages, well-nigh remained mere advisory bodies; only Parliament achieved real political power, such that it could significantly limit the actions of the monarch (see History of Democracy).
While Parliament was initially dominated by the nobility, throughout the Reformation information technology increasingly became the political vocalization of the center grade.70 Members of Parliament were elected, albeit only by a fraction of the population (due to holding requirements for suffrage). All the same, this was the starting-point of modernistic democracy, and Parliament is the ancestor of all modern democratic governments.
For most of Europe, the Enlightenment was the age of authoritarianism, during which monarchs achieved an unprecedented degree of absolute rule over their nations. Thank you to Parliament, England was the principal exception to this rule. The restoration of the monarchy in 1660 came with stiff weather, namely that monarchs would recognize the legal potency Parliament had obtained up to that point, equally well as some boosted power. Thus does the English language Revolution mark the decisive, permanent end of absolutism in England. (This was reaffirmed a few decades afterward past the brief Glorious Revolution, in which another Stuart male monarch with absolutist ambitions was deposed by Parliamentary forces.)A296-97,79
England thus became the first major ability to feature representative government (i.e. government in which significant political ability is held past a representative associates). This did not get unnoticed: from the English Revolution onward, demand for representative government was constant throughout the Western world.78 Representative government (and British civilization generally) likewise spread via exportation from Uk to its colonies, including the U.s.a. (which, some two centuries later on the English Revolution, would become the world'due south kickoff true democracy).
Enlightenment Europe
ca. 1650-1800
| Early Enlightenment ca. 1648-1715 | France, under Louis 14, flourishes as the mightiest European nation; the Early Enlightenment concludes with the War of the Spanish Succession |
| Belatedly Enlightenment ca. 1715-1800 | a 5-way rest of power prevails in Europe; Great britain wins the Vii Years' War, thereby becoming the global colonial superpower; the Enlightenment concludes with the French Revolution |
During the period from the Enlightenment to World War I (ca. 1650-WWI), the primary powers of Europe were France, England, Austria, Prussia (later Frg), and Russia. During the Early on Enlightenment (ca. 1648-1715), France waxed as the well-nigh powerful nation of the five (under Louis 14). During the Belatedly Enlightenment (ca. 1715-1800), the v nations were more evenly matched, comprising a five-way "balance of power".2
Notation that the Ottoman Empire was also a major force in European politics for the whole of its existence (ca. 1300-WWI).
The reign of the French king Louis Fourteen (aka the "Sun King") spanned the unabridged Early Enlightenment. Louis' reign was characterized by extensive patronage of the arts, ruthless persecution of the Huguenots (which virtually concluded Protestantism in France), and constant wars of attempted expansion.51 These attempts compelled other European powers to unite into an anti-French coalition, whose membership fluctuated throughout the decades (merely was consistently led by England and Republic of austria).
The foremost conflict of the Early Enlightenment was the State of war of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), which spanned the terminal years of Louis Xiv'southward reign. This conflict resulted from the extinction of the Habsburg dynasty in Spain, which caused Louis' grandson Philip to inherit the Spanish throne; left unchecked, this would eventually have led to the matrimony of France and Spain under a single monarch. The anti-French coalition averted this danger by attacking and defeating both nations; in the resulting peace settlement, France and Spain were forbidden from ever uniting, and both were stripped of significant territories.52,53
The foremost conflict of the Tardily Enlightenment (along with the American and French Revolutions) was the Vii Years' War (1756-63), which involved most of Europe. Fighting took place both in Europe itself and throughout the globe, betwixt the European empires. Indeed, the Seven Years' War is often cited as the commencement global conflict.
At the core of this conflict was the British-French struggle for world supremacy. The Enlightenment period witnessed a string of wars between these nations over control of Republic of india, North America, and the Caribbean. More often than not, Britain claimed victory in these wars, such that French territory was slowly eroded.
Victory in the Seven Years' State of war allowed the British Empire to absorb New France (French territory in North America) and ejected the French from India. The Seven Years' War thus marks the ascension of the British Empire every bit the supreme global colonial power. By imposing new taxes on colonies (due to massive war debts), still, Britain spurred the American Revolution, which France was only too eager to support.73
Russia and Prussia
The history of Russia began ca. 1500, when Ivan the Smashing founded the nation by freeing his East Slavic land (known as Muscovy) from Turkic domination. Russian territory expanded steadily throughout the Early Mod menses, especially eastward. Ivan the Great was succeeded past Ivan the Terrible, the first Russian ruler to be titled tsar. Presently subsequently, the Romanov dynasty came to power, remaining at that place until the position of tsar was terminated during WWI.41,42
The foremost monarch of Enlightenment Russia was Peter the Great, who effected an aggressive programme of "Westernization" to bring Russian government, military, and technology up to Western standards. He established Russian naval ability by founding St Petersburg on the Baltic declension, which served equally the nation'southward capital until Earth State of war I.42
The Enlightenment also witnessed the emergence of the nation of Prussia. "Prussia" was originally a state centred on modern-24-hour interval northeast Poland, established by the Teutonic Knights during the later Eye Ages. Poland conquered the region soon afterward, but immune the Knights to keep part of it as a duchy. During the Reformation, this duchy was inherited by the prince of Brandenburg (one of the small German states under the Holy Roman Empire); during the Enlightenment, Prussia broke free every bit an independent kingdom and expanded rapidly, joining up with Brandenburg to form a single great ability.
French Revolution
The Enlightenment concluded with the French Revolution (1789-99), effected by the French peasantry and middle grade in response to heavy regressive taxation.2 Taxes on food, for instance, were and then loftier as to bring most famine amid the lower classes. Escalating civil unrest forced Louis XVI to summon the Estates-General in a drastic bid to implement satisfactory political reforms, including an acceptable system of revenue enhancement (which was needed to manage the towering national debt).58
The Estates-General was, like England's Parliament, a representative assembly established during the Middle Ages. Dissimilar Parliament, the Estates-General had never attained significant political ability, and so had remained importantly advisory.
The Estates-General consisted of representatives from iii groups: nobility, clergy, and commoners (known as the three "estates"). Though discussions ensued, the commoners lost patience and demanded control of the nation, dubbing themselves the National Assembly. Before long, the rex reluctantly best-selling the National Associates equally the new government of France.58
The new regime would not exist established peacefully, all the same: in 1789, fears of a noble plot to restore the monarchy drove the commoners to storm the Bastille (a prison fortress) for weapons. This human action is considered the beginning of the French Revolution.58
The Revolution featured a series of failed attempts at establishing democratic government. Meanwhile, violence raged both inside France (confronting counter-revolutionaries and between rival revolutionary factions) and against other European nations in the French Revolutionary Wars, through which France expanded eastward. Thousands of perceived enemies of the Revolution were beheaded, including Louis Sixteen and his queen, Marie Antoinette.58
The Revolution ended when Napoleon, a celebrated military officer of the French Revolutionary Wars, seized control of the nation in 1799. Though not declared "emperor" for some years, his rule was dictatorial from the starting time. State of war with Europe connected; the French Revolutionary Wars simply became the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815).58,74
While the French Revolution did not succeed in founding autonomous government, it did initiate the downfall of absolutism in French republic. The Revolution likewise bolstered a range of freedoms in French society, including freedom of voice communication and faith. The ethics and reforms of the French Revolution proved widely influential, especially across Continental Europe.A327
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Source: http://www.essential-humanities.net/western-history/early-modern-europe/
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